Free Essays on Crabbing Regulations

INTRODUCTION The water of the Chesapeake Bay is the home of one of Maryland’s most economically important animals: Callinectes sapidus. This unique creature, commonly known as the blue crab, enjoys the warm, shallow waters of the Bay which provide the perfect environment for all stages of its life (Wesche 2002). The mix of fresh and salt water is optimal for life and for submerged aquatic vegetation located in the estuary supplies a safe haven for developing crabs (Wesche 2002). The overall richness of the environment contributes in creating the idea habitat. The blue crab is a vital part of the ecosystem as well as the culture in Maryland, which is known for its crabbing industry. Chesapeake blue crabs are understood to be some of the most delicious in the world. Each year tourists come to this region just to taste the fresh meat (Greer 2002). Wesche (2002) summarizes the background of the blue crab. Early settlers documented the utilization of the blue crab by the native people of the Chesapeake Bay. The tasty meat was a staple in their diets, and the colonist soon shared the same craving. Use by individuals became the norm; however commercial marketing of this resource was sluggish due to the inability to ship the crabs to non-coastal communities without spoiling. The first big break occurred with the invention of refrigeration. As the crabbing industry began expanding, it became necessary to implement management techniques for harvesting, including regulations. For over a century these â€Å"rules of the trade† have evolved. New restrictions have been created each time the need for better management arises. Recently, a drop in the crab population and yield has led to new regulations on commercial crabbing greatly affecting the industry. This paper will focus on the controversial implementation of Maryland’s most recent crabbing regulations. This will identify the reasons for the managerial actions, as wel... Free Essays on Crabbing Regulations Free Essays on Crabbing Regulations INTRODUCTION The water of the Chesapeake Bay is the home of one of Maryland’s most economically important animals: Callinectes sapidus. This unique creature, commonly known as the blue crab, enjoys the warm, shallow waters of the Bay which provide the perfect environment for all stages of its life (Wesche 2002). The mix of fresh and salt water is optimal for life and for submerged aquatic vegetation located in the estuary supplies a safe haven for developing crabs (Wesche 2002). The overall richness of the environment contributes in creating the idea habitat. The blue crab is a vital part of the ecosystem as well as the culture in Maryland, which is known for its crabbing industry. Chesapeake blue crabs are understood to be some of the most delicious in the world. Each year tourists come to this region just to taste the fresh meat (Greer 2002). Wesche (2002) summarizes the background of the blue crab. Early settlers documented the utilization of the blue crab by the native people of the Chesapeake Bay. The tasty meat was a staple in their diets, and the colonist soon shared the same craving. Use by individuals became the norm; however commercial marketing of this resource was sluggish due to the inability to ship the crabs to non-coastal communities without spoiling. The first big break occurred with the invention of refrigeration. As the crabbing industry began expanding, it became necessary to implement management techniques for harvesting, including regulations. For over a century these â€Å"rules of the trade† have evolved. New restrictions have been created each time the need for better management arises. Recently, a drop in the crab population and yield has led to new regulations on commercial crabbing greatly affecting the industry. This paper will focus on the controversial implementation of Maryland’s most recent crabbing regulations. This will identify the reasons for the managerial actions, as wel...

Ancient Egyptians Played a Board Game Called 58 Holes

Ancient Egyptians Played a Board Game Called 58 Holes The 4,000-year-old board game 58 Holes is also called Hounds and Jackals, the Monkey Race, the Shield Game, and the Palm Tree Game, all of which refer to the shape of the game board or the pattern of the peg holes in the face of the board. As you might guess, the game consists of a board with a track of fifty-eight holes (and a few grooves), in which players race a pair of pegs along the route. It is thought to have been invented in Egypt around 2200 B.C. It flourished during the Middle Kingdom, but died out in Egypt after that, around 1650 B.C. Around the end of the third millennium B.C., 58 Holes spread into Mesopotamia and maintained its popularity there until well into the first millennium B.C. Playing 58 Holes The ancient game 58 Holes most closely resembles the modern childrens game known as Snakes and Ladders in Britain and Chutes and Ladders in the United States. In 58 Holes, each player is given five pegs. They begin at the starting point to move their pegs down the center of the board and then up their respective sides to the endpoints. The lines on the board are the chutes or ladders that allow the player to quickly advance or to just as quickly fall behind. Ancient boards are generally rectangular to oval and sometimes shield or violin-shaped. The two players throw dice, sticks, or knucklebones to determine the number of places they can move, marked on the game board by elongated pegs or pins. The name Hounds and Jackals comes from the decorative shapes of the playing pins found at Egyptian archaeological sites. Rather like Monopoly tokens, one players peg head would be in shape of a dog, the other in that of a jackal. Other forms discovered by archaeologists include pins shaped liked monkeys and bulls. The pegs that been retrieved from archaeological sites were made of bronze, gold, silver, or ivory. It is quite likely that many more existed, but were made of perishable materials such as reeds or wood. Cultural Transmission Versions of Hounds and Jackals spread into the near east shortly after its invention, including Palestine, Assyria, Anatolia, Babylonia, and Persia. Archaeological boards were found in the ruins of Assyrian merchant colonies in Central Anatolia dating as early as the 19th and 18th centuries B.C. These are thought to have been brought by Assyrian merchants, who also brought writing and cylinder seals from Mesopotamia into Anatolia. One route along which the boards, writing, and seals might have traveled is the overland route that would later become the Royal Road of the Achaemenids. Maritime connections also facilitated international trade. There is strong evidence that 58 Holes was traded throughout the Mediterranean region and beyond. With such widespread distribution, its normal that a considerable amount of local variation would exist. Different cultures, some of which were enemies of the Egyptians at the time, adapted and created new imagery for the game. Certainly, other artifact types are adapted and changed for use in local communities. The 58 Holes gameboards, however, seem to have maintained their general shapes, styles, rules, and iconography - no matter where they were played. This is somewhat surprising, because other games, such as chess, were widely and freely adapted by the cultures that adopted them. The consistency of form and iconography in 58 Holes may be a result of the complexity of the board. Chess, for example, has a simple board of 64 squares, with the movement of the pieces dependent on largely unwritten (at the time) rules. Gameplay for 58 Holes depends strictly on the board layout. Trading Games The discussion of cultural transmission of game boards, in general, is currently of considerable scholarly research. The recovery of game boards with two different sides - one a local game and one from another country - suggest that the boards were used as a social facilitator to enable friendly transactions with strangers in new places. At least 68 gameboards of 58 Holes have been found archaeologically, including examples from Iraq (Ur, Uruk, Sippar, Nippur, Nineveh, Ashur, Babylon, Nuzi), Syria (Ras el-Ain, Tell Ajlun, Khafaje), Iran (Tappeh Sialk, Susa, Luristan), Israel (Tel Beth Shean, Megiddo, Gezer), Turkey (Boghazkoy, Kultepe, Karalhuyuk, Acemhuyuk), and Egypt (Buhen, Thebes, El-Lahun, Sedment). Sources Crist, Walter. Board Games in Antiquity. Anne Vaturi, Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, August 21, 2014. Crist, Walter. Facilitating Interaction: Board Games as Social Lubricants in the Ancient Near East. Alex de Voogt, Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, Wiley Online Library, April 25, 2016. De Voogt, Alex. Cultural transmission in the ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty-eight holes. Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi, Jelmer W.Eerkens, Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 40, Issue 4, ScienceDirect, April 2013. Dunn-Vaturi, Anne-E. The Monkey Race - Remarks on Board Games Accessories. Board Games Studies 3, 2000. Romain, Pascal. Les reprà ©sentations des jeux de pions dans le Proche-Orient ancien et leur signification. Board Game Studies 3, 2000.

Evolution of Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Evolution of Nursing - Research Paper Example It is imperative to study of history of nursing as it aids in having a better perception towards communal services and also it helps to develop an understanding towards the issues that were persistently tackling the occupation. With this understanding nurses are allowed to inflate an admiration of the role the occupation has performed in the wellbeing and care system of any country (Donahue, 1991). The present article discusses the history of nursing with an emphasis on communal inclination on the development and proliferation of this occupation. Nursing profession has varied categorization under different cultural domains. In 15th century the nursing profession was associated with the motherly care that is given by a women who looks after the child. Gradually nursing has evolved with this feeling and perception, to nurture or to nourish in complete sense. It encourages the individual towards value for life and existence. Earlier, this was taken care by the nuns and the infantry who provided such provisions. In UK nurses are often called "sisters" (Egenes). Nursing in Antiquity It is not easy to become a care provider and therefore in the ancient times. In the Zuni tribes, this charge was given to the much ahead of the time when the baby actually realize what is her fate to be. If a baby is born, with a segment of placenta, enveloping her face, it was considered as a symbol that the infant is predestined to be a caregiver (Henly, 2007). As the women possess the caring nature by instinct, she has the potential of providing care and attention to her infants and family members, therefore in many cultures and societies women is assigned the task to continue with nursing care to the injured and sick individuals of the society. During the era of inception of nursing care there was no facility of providing any kind of formal education to the nurses and therefore whatever were the traditional methods available with the society, nurses learned them and hence it was pass ed from one generation to another. Nurses also learned through their keen observation when others do care for the sick people, in certain cases when they found their experience and expertise inadequate they either consulted the physician or they adopted the process of trial and error. If the hit and trial procedure gained success it used to become the standard and was utilized for other similar ailments. Thus the practice of nursing care was instituted (Egenes). It was during the early Christian era when the nurses categorized and systemized themselves in group. The preaching of church encompassed charity, self-sacrifice, help and aids to others. Females with some educational backgrounds (Deaconess) were selected by the authorities of the church to serve and care for the ailing individuals. Deaconesses were females either they were Roman matrons or widows. One of the deaconesses, Fabiola established Christian Hospital in Rome and provided the expert care. The deaconess Phoebe is cal led as the first "visiting nurse" (Nutting, 1907). During the era of antiquity, the most preferred and the protected care was the care provided by the family members, clansmen and friends. Hospitalizations were rare and was done for those who do not have any close by relative or family to take care. Earlier hospitals were run by the nuns and monks of the religion. Although because of lack of awareness the individuals were placed together, for instance an individual with smallpox could be placed with the individual having fracture. Diagnosis was poor

The Case of Mann Gulch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Case of Mann Gulch - Essay Example Mr. Dodge is seen to portray poor leadership in a number of ways. First and foremost, he took out his team on a mission without even proper familiarization with his crew members. He never knew even the names of the crew members but was supposed to command them. He only came to learn of their names in the field. Secondly, he was a quiet person which even made it had for him to build mutual and collaborative interactions with his crew. Thirdly, he never kept his crew intact by providing unified leadership. There were many cases of disunity that he was not sensitive to. Lastly, he was supposed to make his crew aware of his decisions which left them wondering the reason why he was lighting a backfire. Their decisions were out of ignorance. Some other people see the fault to this problem in poor training of the crew members. Despite the fact that smoke jumpers are highly trained individuals, the crew on the Mann Gulch fire case lacked experience in firefighting. Most of the people on the crew were young people who had lacked any form of experience in firefighting fire. This explains the reason why they panic was too high for them making them come up with wrong decisions. In this case, research made by urban fighters on the performance of firefighters showed that experienced firefighters have their performance improved under high stress and uncertainty while those inexperienced have their performance decline under such conditions. This level of panic was also amplified by the level of disintegration witnessed in the crew. In such a case, it is very difficult to follow orders. On matters of recommended approaches, it is important that crew leadership familiarizes with crew members and agree on collaborative operation before setting out on a mission.

What Mary Didn’t Know Essay Example for Free

What Mary Didn’t Know Essay The knowledge argument aims to refute physicalism, the belief that the world is entirely physical. Physicalism, also known as materialism, is the view that an individual’s experiences are subjective as it follows the strain of the conscious mind. It plays with the idea that an individual’s understanding of the world could be fulfilled through physical means. In the text What Mary Didnt Know, Jackson relays the hypothetical story of a scientist named Mary who was said to have developed a grasping knowledge about every physical aspect of the world. She was also kept away from being exposed to colors and only sees and learns things in black and white. When it was decided that she should be released her from her self-contained room, she was able to see a myriad of colors for the first time (Jackson, 1986). Out of this scenario, Jackson posits a question that challenges the principles of physicalism: If Mary has knowledge of all physical facts about the world and has learned something new once outside, it must be something that is not physical, and therefore it would dispute that everything in reality can be explained through physical means (Jackson, 1986). The central statement of the argument flows in this manner: P1: Prior to Mary’s release, it is a known fact that she is knowledgeable about the physical aspect about the world and other people. P2 After releasing Mary from her confined space and out into the world of color, Mary realizes that she does not know everything there is to know about other people and the world as she has obtained additional information about them. Therefore, it is postulated that Mary has not exhausted all physical information regarding other people and the world as she has learned something new outside her confinement. Clearly, this conclusion states that the notions about physicalism are false since there are certain truths that are not encompassed in the physicalist aspect of things (Jackson, 1986). The main conviction against physicalism is said to be the idea of qualia. According to Jackson, Qualia is said to be something that which is felt from experience. It is the notion that connects experiences to an idea or knowledge of a subject in a distinct way. Not everyone’s experience is the same as individuals are inherently different so one could denote that there are different ways to experience and interpret qualia. Neverthelss, Qualia poses problems of its own such as the assimilation of consciousness, introspection, comprehension and familiarity. However, the thought that will be focused on here is the existing conflict between qualia and physicalism (Jackson, 1986). If a physicalist claims that Mary knows what it’s like to see colors while confined in her room, the physicalist must be able to explain why Mary appears to acquire that knowledge when she leaves. The physicalist may deny the claim of knowledge intuition but then it would have to disregard the postulates that follow it (Jackson, 1986). There are many possible responses to support Jackson’s argument. One of which is the ability hypothesis from Ryle (1949) which illustrates a definite distinction between the proposed knowledge-that and knowledge-how. Knowledge-that is simply information which clarifies a statement based on the knowledge that has been obtained. Knowledge-how refers to a statement or information that is concerned with the process of how one obtains new knowledge. The knowledge argument only reinforces that Mary gains knowledge-how. On the other hand, the second postulate in the knowledge argument would only be true if Mary gained propositional knowledge (O’Hear, 2003). Secondly, there is the notion of metaphysically necessary truths. A metaphysical necessary truth is something that which could have failed to be the case. Logical truths could provide clear examples of this. For instance, an argument which states that a hippopotamus cannot fly like birds is a necessary truth. However, if laws the laws of nature were different then a hippopotamus would be able to fly like birds in a metaphysical sense (O’Hear, 2003). A metaphysically necessary truth is a truth that is narrowed down to the basics which does not simply rely on the existing nature of laws. Saul Kripke (1972) was notable for his argument regarding metaphysically necessary truths that disregards pure logic. For example, his view, that water is H2O is metaphysically necessary but he also recognizes that there are substances that resemble water or shares similar superficial qualities like its taste and visual appearance. However, he argues that such substances are not really water because it has a different molecular composition (O’Hear, 2003). In connection with the metaphysical necessary truths argument, a third approach introduces the distinction between a priori and a posteriori physicalism. It assumes that if physicalism is true then the complete truth about a subject matter is a priori that is extracted from the complete physical truth (O’Hear, 2003). A Priori is the initial statement taken out of the context of the complete physical truth, which is the posteriori. As was mentioned, the crucial claim of a posteriori physicalism is that it asserts that in order to be aware of the knowledge or change, one must be able to experience it. However, it is argued that Mary does not have relevant experience with regard to human color vision therefore she does not know. This argument would only be valid if the posteriori is not physically conceivable (O’Hear, 2003). A fourth draws from the conceivability argument of Descartes. The main argument emphasizes the dual properties of the mind and body. Descartes believes that if an individual can clearly and definitively visualize his or her mind without the body and his or her body without the mind, then both can exist without each other, which emphasizes the dichotomy between the two. Contemporary versions of this argument is said to carry out the inversion of qualia wherein one’s view of a subject matter may be different to the view of another (O’Hear, 2003). The fifth anti-physicalist argument is derived from the explanatory thought. The contention begins with the premise that physicalist descriptions of consciousness justify only the structure of the thought and function or role of the experience, which is not enough to explain the consciousness at work. For instance, if an individual learns about the Eiffel tower from a book, he or she envisions it through the descriptions in the book that describes its history and structure and its impact on the society. The knowledge the individual acquires from the book is limited since the actual experience of being in Paris to witness the structure has not been experienced (O’Hear, 2003). The sixth and final argument asserts the distinction of various conceptions of the physical. The argument stresses that the properties which define information by the conception of physical theory differs from the attributes that define those which rely on the conception of objects. It suggests that the first premise is open to either of the two interpretations. The notions about inverted qualia definitely support this argument since it makes use of the special attributes that is missing in observations that is purely physical (O’Hear, 2003). Conclusion The knowledge argument of Jackson assess that there is a difference in the type of fact being presented and that it may not be entirely physical. The succeeding anti-physicalist arguments and its derivative all question the essential assertions of physicalism that creates an abstract notion of reality. Jackson’s efforts in creating a stir on the drawbacks of physicalism have contributed a great deal of knowledge into exploring the depths of the subconscious mind. The arguments presented in the paper were long and confusing but it was very interesting to see different sides of the anti-physicalists streams of thought since collectively, the main premise of Jackson made much more sense. However, it seems that supporters of physicalists are coming up with their own responses to such arguments which create a much more complex understanding of just how a human’s consciousness works to define the physical world. References Jackson, F. (1986). What Mary Didn’t Know. The Journal of Philosophy, 83(5), 291-295. Retrieved March 11, 2009 from JSTOR database. O’Hear, A. (2003). Minds and persons. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Civilization Cure Or Disease :: essays research papers

Upon flipping to the business section of the New York Times an Ohio University student saw a startling headline glaring back at her â€Å"American Corporations Suspected In Millions of Third World Deaths.† As she read the article it became apparent that international corporations many of which were based in the United States exploit the poorest of the poor. These companies paid workers extremely low wages and exposed them to hazardous materials with out any protection. Working conditions were unsafe and often lead to health problems. It appeared that slavery was alive and well in the name of â€Å"Global Industrialization.† Even more shocking was the fact that this new form of slavery was also present within our own borders. Migrant workers and illegal aliens were becoming an increasing percentage of America’s labor force. These workers were paid well below minimum wage for jobs, which often put their health if not their life in jeopardy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It appeared that America’s industrial empire was built upon the exploitation of the poor throughout the world. Often women and children were the victims of the â€Å"Global Market Economy.† The article stated that millions of goods were produced by children as young as 6 in third world and developing nations. Companies producing these goods claimed that it was not â€Å"slave labor† they claimed it was the â€Å"efficient use of human resources for production.† It seemed that companies in their desire of â€Å"progress† and profit were oppressing the world’s poorest nations and their citizens. This is not a new phenomenon it has gone on through history; the strong oppress the weak. What is amazing though is the fact that industrialized nations all consider themselves to be the most civilized societies in the world. Industrial powers view less developed nations as backwards which is a synonym for barbarous. But are the societies of industrially advanced nations truly the most civil? This is the question Montaigne raised over 400 years ago in his paper entitled â€Å"Of Cannibals.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout history it seems that the most technologically advanced societies are the most powerful. And the most powerful nations view themselves as the most civilized people in the world. But what exactly are the defining attributes of a civilized society? According to Webster’s Third International Dictionary a civilization is: an ideal state of human culture, characterized by complete absence of barbarism and non-rational behavior, optimum utilization of physical, cultural, spiritual, and human resources, and perfect adjustment of the individual within the social framework.

Emerging Wireless Technologies

A look into the future of wireless communications – beyond 3G Forward: The Public Safety Wireless Network (PSWN) Program is conducting an ongoing assessment of advancements in the wireless communications industry. The scope of this assessment is to identify emerging wireless services and technologies for potential public safety use in the near future and beyond. This particular document is the first of a series of emerging wireless technologies studies. This study will concentrate primarily on the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications and beyond. G – i. e. , an entirely packet switched network with all digital network elements and extremely high available bandwidth. For the most part, it is believed that 4G will bring true multimedia capabilities such as high-speed data access and video conferencing to the handset. It is also envisioned that 4G systems will be deployed with software defined radios, allowing the equipment to be upgraded to new protocols and services via software upgrades. 4G also holds the promise of worldwide roaming using a single handheld device. Wireless Generations At-a-Glance As with all technology progressions, the â€Å"next† upgrades must be in planning and development phases while its predecessors are being deployed. This statement holds true with all mobile telecommunications to date. It seems that it will also hold true for the next generations of wireless networks. The original analog cellular systems are considered the first generation of mobile telephony (1G). In the early 1980s, 1G systems were deployed. At the same time, the cellular industry began developing the second generation of mobile telephony (2G). The difference between 1G and 2G is in the signaling techniques used: 1G used analog signaling, 2G used digital signaling. As experience shows, the lead-time for mobile phone systems development is about 10 years. It was not until the early to mid 1990s that 2G was deployed. Primary thinking and concept development on 3G generally began around 1991 as 2G systems just started to roll out. Since the general model of 10 years to develop a new mobile system is being followed, that timeline would suggest 4G should be operational some time around 2011. 4G would build on the second phase Although the new, third generation (3G) wireless technology has not yet been implemented, leading companies in the industry are already laying the groundwork for what some are calling fourth generation (4G) technology. For the purposes of this article, 4G will be considered those technologies that are still in the planning stages and will not be deployed within the next five years. Researchers are continuing their ideas in the development of an undefined wireless world, which could become operational by 2010. The first generation (1G) and second generation (2G) of mobile telephony were intended primarily for voice transmission. The third generation of mobile telephony (3G) will serve both voice and data applications. There really is no clear definition of what 4G will be. It is generally accepted that 4G will be a super-enhanced version of of 3G, when all networks are expected to embrace Internet protocol (IP) technology. During the last year, companies such as Ericsson, Motorola, Lucent, Nortel and Qualcomm came up with â€Å"3G-plus† concepts that would push performance of approved, though still emerging, standards beyond current ones. Interoperability and the Evolution of Network Architectures One of the most challenging issues facing deployment of 4G technologies is how to make the network architectures compatible with each other. New signaling techniques are being designed specifically to enhance today's second generation (2G) networks, deliver unprecedented functionality for 3G, and successfully drive the Fourth Generation (4G) of wireless, thus delivering immediate and long-term benefits to carriers. With the architecture of each generation of wireless devices addressed in the development of advanced technologies, carriers can easily evolve their systems without additional network modifications, significantly reducing costs and implementation time. Currently, different wireless technologies (e. g. , GSM, CDMA, and TDMA1) are used throughout the world for the 2G, 2. 5G, and eventually 3G networks. There are two approaches being used to develop 4G access techniques: 3xRTT (currently 1xRTT for 2. 5 and 3G) and Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA). These disparate access techniques currently do not interoperate. This issue may be solved with software defined radios. LinkAir Communications is developing a new access technology called large-area-synchronized code-division multiple access (LAS-CDMA). LASCDMA will be compatible with all current and future standards, and there is a relatively 1 GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access easy transition from existing systems to LAS-CDMA (using software defined radios). LinkAir emphasizes that LASCDMA will accommodate all the advanced technologies planned for 4G and that LASCDMA will further enhance either 3xRTT or W-CDMA system’s performance and capacity. Internet Speeds 2. 5G is the interim solution for current 2G networks to have 3G functionality. 2. 5G networks are being designed such that a smooth transition (software upgrade) to 3G can be realized. 2. 5G networks currently offer true data speeds up to 28kbps. In comparison, the theoretical speed of 3G can be up to 2 Mbps, i. e. , approximately 200 times faster than previous 2G networks. This added speed and throughput will make it possible to run applications such as streaming video clips. It is anticipated that 4G speeds could be as high as 100 Mbps. Thus, 4G will represent another quantum leap in mobile Internet speeds and picture quality. Ericsson confirms that 4G could bring connection speeds of up to 50 times faster than 3G networks and could offer three-dimensional visual experiences for the first time. The following graph represents what has been the typical progression of wireless communications: Quality of Service Challenges In wireless networks, Quality of Service (QOS) refers to the measure of the performance for a system reflecting its transmission quality and service availability (e. g. , 4G is expected to have at least a reliability of 99. 99%). Supporting QOS in 4G networks will be a major challenge. When considering QOS, the major hurdles to overcome in 4G include: varying rate channel characteristics, bandwidth allocations, fault tolerance levels, and handoff support among heterogeneous wireless networks. Fortunately, QOS support can occur at the packet, transaction, circuit, and network levels. QOS will be able to be tweaked at these different operating levels, making the network more flexible and possibly more tolerant to QOS issues. Varying rate channel characteristics refers to the fact that 4G applications will have varying bandwidth and transition rate requirements. In order to provide solid network access to support the anticipated 4G applications, the 4G networks must be designed with both flexibility and scalability. Varying rate channel characteristics must be considered to effectively meet user demand and ensure efficient network management. Spectrum is a finite resource. In current wireless systems, frequency licensing and efficient spectrum management are key issues. In 4G systems, bandwidth allocations may still be a concern. Another concern is interoperability between the signaling techniques that are planned to be used in 4G (e. g. , 3xRTT, WCDMA). In comparison with current 2G and 2. 5G networks, 4G will have more fault tolerance capabilities built-in to avoid unnecessary network failure, poor coverage, and dropped calls. 4G technology promises to enhance QOS by the use of better diagnostic techniques and alarms tools. G will have better support of roaming and handoffs across heterogeneous networks. Users, even in today’s wireless market, demand service transparency and roaming. 4G may support interoperability between disparate network technologies by using techniques such as LAS-CDMA signaling. Other solutions such as software defined radios could also support roaming across disparate network technologies in 4G systems. These major challenges to QOS in 4G networks are currently being studied and solutions are being developed. Developers believe that QOS in 4G will rival that of any current 2G or 2. 5G network. It is anticipated that the QOS in 4G networks will closely approximate the QOS requirements in the wireline environment (99. 999% reliability). The emergence of next generation wireless technologies is going enhance the effectiveness of the existing methods used by public safety†¦ 4G Applications and Their Benefits to Public Safety One of the most notable advanced applications for 4G systems is locationbased services. G location applications would be based on visualized, virtual navigation schemes that would support a remote database containing graphical representations of streets, buildings, and other physical characteristics of a large metropolitan area. This database could be accessed by a subscriber in a moving vehicle equipped with the appropriate wireless device, which would provide the platform on which would appear a virtual representation of the environment ahead. For example, one woul d be able to see the internal layout of a building during an emergency rescue. This type of application is sometimes referred to as â€Å"Telegeoprocessing†, which is a combination of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) working in concert over a high-capacity wireless mobile system. Telegeoprocessing over 4G networks will make it possible for the public safety community to have wireless operational functionality and specialized applications for everyday operations, as well as for crisis management. The emergence of next generation wireless technologies will enhance the effectiveness of the existing methods used by public safety. 3G technologies and beyond could possibly bring the following new features to public safety: Virtual navigation: As described, a remote database contains the graphical representation of streets, buildings, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to visualize the environment ahead. They may also â€Å"virtually† see the internal layout of buildings to plan an emergency rescue, or to plan to engage hostile elements hidden in the building. Tele-medicine: A paramedic assisting a victim of a traffic accident in a remote location could access medical records (e. g. , x-rays) and establish a video conference so that a remotely based surgeon could provide â€Å"on-scene† assistance. In such a circumstance, the paramedic could relay the victim's vital information (recorded locally) back to the hospital in real time, for review by the surgeon. Crisis-management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters where the entire communications infrastructure is in disarray. In such ircumstances, restoring communications quickly is essential. With wideband wireless mobile communications, both limited and complete communications capabilities, including Internet and video services, could be set up in a matter of hours. In comparison, it may take days or even weeks to re-establish communications capabilities when a wireline network is rendered inoperable. Limitations of 4G Although the concept of 4G communications shows much promise, there are still limitations that must be addressed. One major limitation is operating area. Although 2G networks are becoming more biquitous, there are still many areas not served. Rural areas and many buildings in metropolitan areas are not being served well by existing wireless networks. This limitation of today’s networks will carry over into future generations of wireless systems. The hype that is being created by 3G networks is giving the general public unrealistic expectations of always on, always available, anywhere, anytime communications. The public must realize that although high-speed data communications will be delivered, it will not be equivalent to the wired Internet – at least not at first. If measures are not taken now to correct perception issues, when 3G and later 4G services are deployed, there may be a great deal of disappointment associated with the deployment of the technology, and perceptions could become negative. If this were to happen, neither 3G nor 4G may realize its full potential. Another limitation is cost. The equipment required to implement a nextgeneration network is still very expensive. Carriers and providers have to plan carefully to make sure that expenses are kept realistic. One technique currently being implemented in Asian networks is a Pay-Per-Use model of services. This model will be difficult to implement in the United States, where the public is used to a service-for-free model (e. g. , the Internet). Conclusions 4G networks may eventually deliver on all the promises. At times, it seems that technological advances are being made on a daily basis. These advances will make highspeed data/voice-over-Internet-protocol (VoIP) networks a reality. In the meantime, it is important for industry to develop a strong 3G offering that is palatable for the general public. Equally as important, industry must ensure that expectations are realistic and that services meet and exceed those expectations. If all goes according to what the industry envisions, it may be sooner, rather than later that we will see wireless communications evolve. This evolution will give the general public as well as the public safety community amazing functionality from the convenience of a single handheld device. Postscript: The purpose of this article is to introduce the reader to next-generation wireless communications. In coming articles, further developments in 4G (e. g. , services, billing, protocols, and standards) and other emerging wireless technologies will be presented in greater depth. References http://www.cnn.com/2001/TECH/ptech/03/08/4G.world.idg/ http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1999/nsf9968/nsf9968.htm